Spirituality And Mental Illness Psychology Essay

Spirituality And Mental Illness Psychology Essay Spirituality is a part of human experience. It often stands as one integral aspect of ones cultural or religious orientation. Likewise, spirituality may also represent ones individual choice, belief, and behavior. Both in terms of traditional and conventional healthcare, there are three aspects of human well-being that should be taken care of: physical, mental, and spiritual health. Physical is for the body, mental is for the mind, and psychic health is for the spirit (Jeitschko et al., 2005). However, in the present idea of healthcare, the thrust of healthcare efforts is given to physical health. However, the other two components also play integral roles in the achievement of humans overall (external and internal) well-being. Oftentimes, these two are overlooked. Although courses of religion and spirituality are common in most medical schools and pastoral care is provided in some hospitals, health policies and insurance in mental healthcare is severely restricted in ways that physical healthcare is not and moreover, to emphasize, very little healthcare is provided for the spiritual healthcare (Jeitschko et al., 2005). Yet, Jeitschko et al (2005) claimed that spiritual claim has repeatedly observed to be an important factor and correlated for the health of both body and minds health. In this paper, we look into the importance of spiritual health as a prerequisite towards mental health improvement and maintenance- to prevent and to treat mental illnesses. First, we describe a brief overview of the situation concerning mental disorders and illnesses as a global phenomenon. Third, we define and contextualize spirituality as a prerequisite to overall spiritual health. Lastly, we discuss how spirituality has been used to 1) prevent a vast array of mental illnesses and 2) treat various cases of mental disability and other psychiatric ability. Mental Illness: A Situation Overview While each is a separate aspect, spirituality and mental well-being are viewed as closely-related, if not dependent to each other. This may be because both are internal mechanisms that may not be measured by medical apparatuses, may not diagnosed via single medical procedure, and cannot be treated by measurable doses of medicine. Rather, these are brought about by internal mechanisms that exist along a continuum of attitudes and behavior. Mental health and mental illness exist along a continuum of attitude and behavior. This covers a wide array of mental diagnostic categories, from mild conditions like depression to more serious cases such as schizophrenic disorders (OBrien, 2003). The main components of looking into mental disorder are: internal psychological dysfunctions, unexpected response to a social phenomenon, and differentiation from deviant behavior. Nonetheless, the universal component of mental illness is the dysfunction of some internal psychological mechanism. Examples of these dysfunctions occur in systems of cognition, thinking, perception, motivation, emotion, language, and memory (Horwitz, 2002). Millions of people all over the world suffer from mental illnesses and adverse mental health. As of 2002, 154 million suffer from depression, 50 million from epilepsy, 25 million from schizophrenia, and 24 million people suffer from Alzheimer and other dementias. It was also observed that 25% visiting healthcare services suffer from mental, neurological and behavioral disorders but most of these cases are not diagnosed and treated. Moreover, people with these disorders are oftentimes subjected to social isolation, decreased quality of life, and increased mortality (WHO, 2010). Barriers of effective mental treatment can be traced into two factors: 1) lack of recognition of the seriousness of mental illnesses among patients, and 2) lack of understanding about the benefits of having cost-effective mental illness treatment. This alleviated by the fact that in most middle and low income countries devote less than 1% of their budget to mental health (WHO, 2010). Defining Spirituality Before going farther in this paper, it is necessary to first define spirituality and to bring forth its importance. Spirituality is defined first by differentiating the concept with that of religion. Religion is strictly linked to formal religious institutions. On the other hand, spirituality does not depend on formal institutions but comes from initiatives of an individual. The similarities of spirituality and religion both focus on belief, sacred, divine entities, and the resulting behaviors and practices and spiritual consciousness. However, this arbitrary definition does not provide comprehensive delineation of the two concepts (George, 2000). National Institute of Healthcare Research (NIHR) defined spirituality as the feelings, thoughts, experiences, and behaviors that arise from search for the sacred. In this definition, search encompasses identifying, transforming, and maintaining. Terms such as knowing, understanding, and embodying can be used as synonyms to search based on this context. Sacred refers to divine being, higher power, and ultimate truth as perceived by the individual collective reinforcement and identity. Hence, from this definition of spirituality, the distinctive characteristic of religion is collective reinforcement and identity (George, 2010). Another comprehensive definition of spirituality came from Murray and Zenter (1989): à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦spirituality dimension, a quality that goes beyond religious affiliation that strives for inspiration, reverence, awe, meaning and purpose, even in those who do not believe in God comes essentially into focus in times of emotional stress, physical and mental illness, loss, bereavement and death. From these definitions, spirituality can be summarized in three elements: comes from within an individual and not collective affiliations; goal-oriented: search, inspiration, well-being, and embodiment of belief; come in times of emotional stress and mental distress. Spiritual Healthcare The idea that spirituality is an initiative of an individual comes with the expectation that there is a wide array of spiritual healthcare procedures depending on how individuals perceive its importance and the procedures encompassing it. Hence, to take care of spiritual health, the individual should be able to have the following skills: being able to create peaceful state of mind, ability to stay alert, attentive, and mentally focused in present circumstances, develop above average empathy and to grieve appropriately and then let go afterwards. Moreover, spiritual values include kindness, compassion, generosity, tolerance, creativity, wisdom, honesty, humility, and patience (Culliford, 2002). Some of the elements of spiritual care include: environment of purposeful activity; feelings of safety and security, dignity, belonging and acceptance; having opportunities and encouragement to express feelings and thoughts; and to receive permission, encouragement to develop relationship with God or Absolute and to receive place and privacy for prayers worship, and spiritual education; and to derive meaning from illness experiences (Culliford, 2006). Spirituality for Prevention and Cure of Mental Illness Throughout history, mental illness was closely related to religious faith, demonic possessions and magical enchantments. In a very long time in history, mental illness was misunderstood and misinterpreted and people suspected to have mental disorders were subjected to cruel procedures. In prehistory mental illness perceived to come from supernatural and magical spirits that disrupt minds. Shamans tried to cure mental illness through performing rituals, casting spells, and using mind-altering drugs. Trepanning, or drilling a hole on patients skull to release or exorcise bad spirits. However, fossils show that new bones grew to cover the holes and high survival rates were observed (Thomson, 2007). Ancient Egyptians were the first to implement a form of mental healthcare and the first to cure a patient identified to have mental illness. Temples and temple complexes served as mental hospitals. Mental treatment procedures include: psychiatric texts, rites, rituals and prayers. Egyptians were also able to decipher that mental illness that time was caused by loss of money and status; hence, they suggested that talk therapy will be an effective treatment procedure (Thomson, 2007). However, due to advances in technology, rapid evolution of the society and paradigm shifts in terms of mental illnesses, spirituality becomes a forgotten dimension of mental healthcare (Culliford, 2002). Spirituality, as prevention and treatment for mental illness, was included in the identified misunderstanding of ancient people towards mental disorders. Spirituality was forgotten as an important tool for physical and mental health and spiritual health was also overlooked as a part of overall human well-being. This neglect is attributed to secularization and science-based discipline of psychiatry (Culliford, 2007). Now, importance of spirituality is gradually being rediscovered because of two reasons. First, mental illness patients report spirituality; spiritual beliefs and practices are their major sources of personal strength. Second, there is increased attention in academic and scientific research and psychiatric treatment and practices (George, 2000). In the field of psychiatry, a trending practice is to achieve first, spiritual history of the patients before addressing their mental needs. Spiritual history includes details of the patients religious antecedents, practices, beliefs or the lack or absence of these. Reasons for taking spiritual history include (Culiford, 2007): The field recognizes that nature of spirituality as a source of validity, motivation, and sense of belonging and acceptance which are beneficial for the patients. There is a also a long historical relationship between spiritual healthcare and medicine. Spirituality is oftentimes part of patients needs and wishes. The influence of spirituality and religion to the attitudes and decisions of the staff. Moreover, spirituality is now recognized as an integrating force for various dimensions of human life including physical, biological, psychological, and psychosocial. Although it is acknowledged that spirituality may also have negative effects on mental well-being, there is a growing confidence for mental, and even physical health of spiritual belief and practices. In a wide review of researches on spirituality and mental health, 20% showed negative effects while 80% observed positive results (Culliford, 2007). Some of the negative accounts on spirituality as a beneficial tool for curing mental illness include the studies cited by Fallot (2003). In terms of diagnosis and psychiatric rehabilitation programs, DSM-IV diagnosis involves assessment of spiritual experiences. In a symptom-oriented nosological system, the focus is directed to spiritual or religious behavior of the patient. In DSM-IV, two scenarios may occur: First, spiritual concerns may be problematic and may also be attributable to the actual mental disorder. In cases of severe mental disorder, psychiatric disorder is considered primary while spiritual expression is secondary. There are cases when spiritual experiences disappear, the primary or psychiatric disorder is treated adequately. Second, spiritual issue is problematic but may not be attributed to the mental disease. Patients with severe mental illness are still capable of spiritual activities such as struggles for searching meaning in life, conflicting and confusing relationships with the sacred, and challenges to long-hel beliefs. These further leads to prolonged psychiatric difficulties, problems in understanding religious experiences, loss of hope and demoralization However, Fallot (2003) argued that there is positive spiritual coping that will be beneficial for mental illness patients. Still on a lager scale, patients tend to turn unto religion not just as a significant resource but also as a coping mechanism that is helpful. Spirituality and religion can serve as possible mechanisms with positive impacts of mental health and rarely are the cases in which both pose negative impacts on mental health (Fallot, 2003). Specifically, spiritual well-being is associated to reduce likelihood of anxiety disorders, depression, and substance abuse that lead to addiction and other mental disorders. Likewise, there is also positive association between spirituality undertaking and recovery from mental disorders such as depression and substance abuse (George, 2002). Mental Healthcare Practices Involving Spirituality This section discusses some mental healthcare treatment practices that are used to emphasize the role of spirituality to mental health (Fallot, 2003). Spiritual Assessment. This refers to understanding of content and the functions of a patients spiritual beliefs and practice. This approach is useful on a diverse religious experiences and cultures. The definition of spirituality can both be broad and inclusive. This approach goes beyond symptom-oriented orientation but rather explore potential significance of spirituality to the patient and his recovery. Spiritually informed groups. The group provides therapeutic context of examination of consumers religious beliefs and traditions. The role of this group is to provide a positive connection between spirituality and the present conditions of the patients. In spite of religious diversity, patients may find it helpful to share and listen to others search for meaning and purpose of life. It will not exacerbate symptoms of mental health but will rather support and clarify ones purpose in life which shall give sense of worth, value, and trust to themselves. Individual psychotherapy. Psychotherapeutic approaches coming from a wide variety of religious beliefs such as Christianity, Judaism, Islam and others attuned the present approaches for individual psychotherapy. Aside from overview of religious interventions, this approach can also be used to specify roles of meditation and mindfulness, prayer, and other spiritually and cognitive-behavioral techniques. This approach is also integrated in counseling relationship. Relationships with faith communities. One important factor for treating mental illness is to restore social supports and relationships. Religious or faith communities can offer empowerment, sense of acceptance and belonging to the patients. However, it should be taken into consideration that the patient shall not feel any sense of rejection from the community. How Does Spirituality Prevent and Treat Mental Illness Empirical analysis regarding the effects spirituality to mental health is continuously studied. Researchers and mental health practitioners continue to seek means by which spirituality will prevent and facilitate treatment, if not completely treat mental illnesses. Nonetheless, for the present studies, the following two mechanisms were attributed as the factors by which spirituality is helpful to mental health: First is the ability to establish social support. Spiritual participation may be one major avenue for developing social bonds and other social support. People with high religious participation have larger social networks, higher interaction with social network, receive more assistance from others, and have higher levels of satisfaction of the social support they receive. This is important as rejection is one of the major causes of disturbed mental health and acceptance is one of the best recovery apparatus. Second is the coherence spirituality offers. Through coherence within the group, patients tend to understand their role in life, their purpose, and to develop courage to face sufferings. Moreover, coherence with others is also an effective buffer to stress on mental health. As a conclusion, it can be acknowledged that in spite of the gaps between the benefits of spirituality and mental health, it can still be safely implemented as a tool to prevent and facilitate cure of mental illnesses through the approaches and because of the mechanisms mentioned in the later part of the paper.

The Tragic Hero: Creon or Antigone? Essay -- Character Analysis, Greek

In the Greek tragedy Antigone, the characters Antigone and Creon can both be thought of as the tragic hero of the play. Though Antigone does show some of these characteristics of a tragic hero, Creon demonstrates the attributes more clearly and concisely. Creon is the King of Thebes, as well as the uncle of Antigone. Creon took the throne after a tragic quarrel between his two nephews, Eteocles and Polyneices. Despite his harsh governing and his crude ideals, he is not good or bad. Creon is the tragic hero of the play Antigone, because of his superiority in his society, his nobility, and his tragic flaw, self-pride. Creon was known as the antagonist King in Antigone. A sample of Creon’s antagonist actions is quoted: â€Å"†¦Polyneices, I say, is to have no burial: no man is to touch him or say the least prayer for him; he shall lie on the plain, unburied; and the birds and the scavenging dogs can do with him whatever they like.† (Sophocles 1. 43-46) Though he is known for negative things, he is still perceived and still superior to every Theban. Antigone was known in the society as the princess; but, she did not show herself as a grand and known person. Creon is proud of his position in society and is prideful of his city and his decisions. Creon said proudly, â€Å"You forget yourself! You are speaking to your King!† (Sophocles 5. 66) Creon exhibits the trait of superiority almost to the point from this quote. Antigone, however, is only recognized for being the princess of the former king and committing an act of civil disobedience against King Creon. Creon and Antigone are also comparable in the area of nobility. Creon was the brother of Oedipus, the former king of Thebes. Quoted by Choragus, â€Å"But now at last is our new King is comi... ...t Creon was; however, he does understand how imprudent he was as a result of his own actions. After reading this argument, it is hoped that readers recognize that Creon is the tragic hero of Antigone. Creon and Antigone are both main characters of the play, but Creon’s character explains a tragic hero more so than Antigone’s. Creon’s superiority to his society, his nobility, and his tragic flaw self-pride assists in proving this topic. Because of Creon’s in-depth characteristics and unusual position in the story, it makes Antigone’s character seem like a minor character once analyzed. Almost every reader claims that since Antigone is the protagonist, the main character, and a princess, she is certainly the tragic hero. All in all, Creon is the tragic hero of the Greek Tragedy, Antigone by only three characteristics: superiority, nobility, and self-pride.

Pressure Management on a Supercritical Airfoil

Pressure Management on a supercritical aerofoil in transonic flow Abstract-At transonic speeds an aerofoil will have flow accelerate onwards from the leading edge to sonic speeds and produce a shockwave over the surface of its body. One factor that determines the shockwave location is the flow speed. However, the shape of an aerofoil also has an influence. The experiment conducted compared Mach flow over a supercritical aerofoil (flattened upper surface) and a naca0012 aerofoil (symmetrical).Despite discrepancies, the experiment confirmed the aerodynamic performance of a supercritical aerofoil being superior to a conventional aerofoil. A comparison of the graphical distributions demonstrates the more even pressure distribution on a supercritical aerofoil and a longer delay in shockwave formation. All of which, reflects the theory. Table of Contents Introduction3 Apparatus3 Induction Wind Tunnel with Transonic Test Section3 Mercury Manometer4 Procedure4 Theory and Equations5 Results6 Discussion10 Theory of Transonic Flight10 Relating the Theory to the Experiment11Effectiveness of Supercritical aerofoils†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ 11 Limitations and Improvements12 Appendix13 References14 Introduction For any object travelling through a fluid such as air, a pressure distribution over all of its surface exists which helps generate the necessary lift. Lift is an aerodynamic force which is perpendicular to the direction of the aerofoil. Transonic speeds result in the formation of shockwaves over the top surface of the aerofoil. This is due to accelerated flow over the surface region. We say this region is approximately between 0. 8-0. . Since the flow must accelerate and then will lose velocity following the shockwave the aerofoil will have a subsonic and sonic region. For the majority of commercial airlines this is not a desired region to cruise at given the instantaneous pressure distribution which passengers would otherwise experience. Particularly, the formation of shock induced boundary layer separation. Supercritical aerofoils are more efficient designed for higher Mach speeds and drag reduction. They are distinct from conventional aerofoils by their flattened upper surface and asymmetrical design.The main advantage of this type of aerofoil is the development of shockwaves further away then traditional aerofoils and thus greatly reducing the shock induced boundary layer separation. In order to truly understand the effectiveness of a supercritical aerofoil an experiment gathering supercritical aerofoil performance and raw data of a naca0012 aerofoil will be extensively analysed and compared. Following the calculation and procedureit will be assessed whether a supercritical aerofoil is more effective. ApparatusA wind tunnel with a transonic test section was used in this experiment to study transonic flow around an aerofoil. The test section consists of liners which, after the initial contraction, are nominally parallel apart from a slight divergence to compensate for growth of the boundary layers on the wall. In order to reduce interference and blockage at transonic speeds, the top and bottom liners are ventilated by longitudinal slots backed by plenum chambers. The working section has a height and width of 178mm and 89mm respectively. The stagnation pressure, p0? in the tunnel is close to atmospheric pressure, and therefore it can be taken to be equal to the settling-chamber pressure as the errors are only small. To minimise the disturbance due to the model itself, the reference stagnation pressure, p? , is taken from a pressure tapping in the floor of the working-section, well upstream of the model. The nominal ‘free-stream’ Mach number, M? , in the tunnel can be calculated from the ratio p? /p0?. The Mach number in the tunnel can be controlled by varying the pressure of the injected air, pj. The maximum Mach number that the tunnel can achieve is about 0. 8 Mercury Manometer A multi-tube manometer with mercury was used to measure the pressure at stagnation, the aerofoil tappings and atmosphere. The manometer is equipped with a locking mechanism which allows the mercury levels to be ‘frozen’ so that readings can be taken once the flow has been stopped. Also, the angle of the manometer can be adjusted. For this experiment, it was set to 45 degrees (Motellebi, F. ,2012). Procedure Before conducting the experiment, the barometric pressure, Pat, was recorded, in inches of mercury and the atmospheric temperature, in degrees Celsius, was also recorded.For a range of  values of Pj from 10 – 110 lb/in2, in intervals of 20lb/in2, Pj was then recorded along with the manometer readings corresponding to stagnation pressure (I0? ), the reference static pressure (I? ), airfoil pressure tappings (In, n=1 to 8 and 3a ) and the atmospheric pressure (Iat), all in inches of mercury (Motellebi, F. ,2012). Results- Raw data in appendix x/c Figure 1b Cp against x/c at M= 0. 85 Figure 1a -Cp against x/c at M=0. 85 The experimental data was converted to absolute pressure values using Equation x ( units are inches of mercury).For a given value of the pressure injector (Pinjector) we can find the value of the Mach number using Equation y. Also Equation Z calculates Cp( or pressure coefficents) which reflect the measurements of the surface of the aerofoil. These results are displayed in figure x. This was done for both the supercritical aerofoil and the NACCA 0012 aerofoil. What follows is a comparison and analysis of the data. ( Figure 2b Cp against x/c at Mach speed 0. 8 Figure 2a -Cp against x/c at Mach speed 0. 81 x/c x/c Figure 3b- -Cp against x/c at Mach speed 0. 72 Figure 3a –Cp against x/c at Mach speed 0. 3 Figure 4b –Cp against x/c at Mach speed 0. 61 Figure 4a –Cp against x/ c at Mach speed 0. 61 Figure 5a- -Cp against x/c at Mach speed 0. 45 Figure 5b- -Cp against x/c at Mach speed 0. 44 Note that for both supercritical and naca0012 aerofoils the supercritical cases ( where M is equal to 0. 77, 0. 83 and 0. 840) the approximate value of x/c % where the shock occurs over the aerofoil is shown in red line. For the point below where Cp and the Cpcritical and hence the drop in Cp is greatest gives the location of where the shockwave occurs on the surface of the aerofoil. Cp and Cp* vs M? naca0012 aerofoil) Cp and Cp* vs M? (supercritical aerofoil) It is worth noting that for both the supercritical and Naca0012 aerofoil the results are somewhat similar. That is the critical Mach numbers for both are around 0. 72. Therefore the Minimum Mach number for a local shockwaves on both the supercritical and conventional aerofoil can be assumed to be the same. It is worth noting that Mach number 0. 41 for the supercritical aerofoil does not produce a shockwave, where as the Naca0012 aerofoil does. Mach number| Supercritical Aerofoil Approx position of shock| naca0012 Approx position of shock| 0. 5| -| -| 0. 61| -| -| 0. 72-0. 73| -| 0. 25x/c%| 0. 85-0. 86| 0. 70x/c%| 0. 40x/c%| Basic transonic theory An aerofoil or any object for that matter travelling through a medium (air) at low Mach numbers ( typically between 0. 30-0. 40) has flow is subsonic and can be considered incompressible. This means that any change in pressure or density is significant. The speed of sound (a) is dependent on the altitude of the aerofoil/object and the Mach number M is the ratio of velocity: M=va , a=? RT ?is a specific heat ratio, T is thel absolute temperature and R is the gas constant.The combination of these two equations above leads to: M=v? RT Sound is essentially a series of consecutive weak pressure waves emitted from a given source. These waves travel at the local speed of sound. If we assume the aerofoil is travelling towards the source, the source can noti ce the disturbances beforehand giving enough time for flow to adjust around the object. When the source begins to approach near the speed of sound, pressure waves move closer together in front of the object, therefore inadequate information from the source/disturbance is propagated upstream and the flow will not be able to react in time.The pressure waves merge together to produce a shockwave in front of the object. The flow encountering the shockwave will experience changes in temperature, static pressure and gas density as well as a lower Mach number. The transonic region is special because although flight speed is below sonic speed as the information is propagated upstream on the surface of the aerofoil the flow accelerated to the speed of sound. Thus forming a shockwave over the aerofoil. The position of this shockwave depends on the initial entry speed to the aerofoil.Therefore what we have in the transonic region is an aerofoil which has sonic speeds early upstream and subsoni c speed towards the end of the aerofoil or downstream. This means it is complicated to accurately analyse transonic flow over an aerofoil as a different set of equations must be used on the leading edge, upper surface and trailing edge. The critical upstream Mach number is the minimum value of a given Mach number for which a shockwave will be produced on the surface of an aerofoil. In other words, supersonic flow.Below this threshold a shockwave will not appear. Drag or the aerodynamic force in the transonic region again depends on the speed of the object travelling. At subsonic speeds the main component of drag are Skin friction, pressure drag and lift induced drag. At sonic speeds (approaching or exceeding) there is the addition of wave drag. The drag increases dramatically, and as a result a higher thrust is needed to sustain acceleration. Also, at this point the shockwave will interact with the boundary layer, thus causing it to separate upstream of the shock.Figure 6Demonstrati on of transonic flight-(Scott, J. , 2000) The aerofoils The two aerofoils Naca0012 and Supercritical aerofoil are different in design and purpose. The Naca0012 is a basic symmetrical aerofoil used primarily for rudder and elevator movements. Aerodynamic performance is not taken into consideration and is thus reflected by the simple aerodynamic design. It is worth noting that there are better aerofoils. The Supercritical aerofoil is a performance aerofoil designed for higher Mach speeds and drag reduction.They are distinct from conventional aerofoils by their flattened upper surface and asymmetrical design. The main advantage of this type of aerofoil is the development of shockwaves further away then traditional aerofoils and thus greatly reducing the shock induced boundary layer separation. Relating the Theory to the Experiment The critical Mach number for both the supercritical aerofoil and NACA0012 aerofoil was found to be in the region of 0,72. There is a difference to the neares t 10th but for all intents and purposes we can assume they are the same.This indicates that the minimum Mach number for a shockwave to be produced on the surface of the aerofoils is equal and not influenced via the shape. The pressure distributions of the supercritical aerofoil ( especially at Higher Mach) in comparison to the Naca0012 are more evenly distributed. The experiment confirms the theory that the supercritical aerofoil in comparison ro a conventional aerofoil generates more lift due to an even distribution of pressure over the upper surface. (http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Supercritical_airfoil) Effectiveness of Supercritical aerofoils.At a Mach number of 0. 45 both aerofoils do not display a shockwave. This is evident from the fact the Cp and Cp* graphs do not intersect at all. We already know this because the critical Mach number is 0. 72 for both. This indicates that either a shockwave was not produced (unlikely), or that the shockwave was produced beyond the trailing edge This means we cannot assess the effectiveness of the supercritical aerofoil at Mach speeds 0,45 and 0. 61. The supercritical Mach numbers show varying results. When the experiment took place at Mach ) 0. 72-0. 3 ( the critical Mach number) the supercritical aerofoil did not produce a shockwave ( Cp and Cp* do not intersect) whereas the naca0012 aerofoil did. The lack of a shockwave formation indicates either the critical Mach number for the supercritical aerofoil is higher then the conventional aerofoil experimental accuracy is lacking. At the supercritical mach numbers ( 0. 81-0. 86) in both the naca0012 aerofoil and the supercritical aerofoil Cp and Cp* intersect. The large drop in pressure coefficient is evidence of the formation of a shockwave.However, the pressure drop in the supercritical aerofoil is occurring at a pressure tapping further downstream. This confirms the theory that a shockwave is produced further downstream in a supercritical aerofoil This seems to confirm the theory that a supercritical aerofoils design does allow for development of shockwaves further away then traditional aerofoils and thus greater reduction in the shock induced boundary layer separation. In regards to the amount of drag (aerodynamic force) acting on the aerofoils it is worth noting that the pressure distribution at 0. 5 Mach for the supercritical aerofoil is more evenly distributed and ‘flatter’ then the naca0012 aerofoil. There is no indication of a large instantaneous increase in drag taking over. This would therefore confirm the theory that a supercritical aerofoil is effective in greatly reducing the shock induced boundary layer separation. Notes for limitations The experiment is a success since results obtained confirm the capabilities of supercritical aerofoils and their advantages over conventional aerofoils. However, there are a few discrepancies which regarding experimental error and the different aerofoils.First of all the mach numbers teste d at 0. 72 and 0. 73 created an inaccurate experiment. Normally, this would not be a problem. However, since the critical mach numbers for both aerofoil’s were in the vicinity of 0. 72 it was expected this was the minimum threshold for a shockwave to be produced over the aerofoil. A shockwave was not produced for the supercritical aerofoil despite the critical mach number value. Therefore, we can conclude that at this speed there are too many inaccuracies to understand what is really going on.We also did not really see a difference in performance at subsonic flow. Granted, the supercritical aerofoil was primarily designed for supercritical mach speed. No useful information was obtained from here. The fact the pressure tappings have different coordinates means that each aerofoil is showing the pressure distribution at a different set of coordinates. This of course, is not as accurate if the aerofoils had the same pressure tappings. For instance, the naca0012 has a pressure tap ping at 6. 5% of the aerofoil section and the last ends 75% the rest is unaccounted for.Since the supercritical aerofoil has different pressure tappings it means both aerofoils have different areas which are unaccounted for. This means it is not certain whether or not the graphs are a reliable source of information, yet alone to compare. A digital meter should also be connected that displays the pressure in the two tappings so the aerofoil can be appropriately adjusted to bring it to zero incidence. This digital meter can also be used to display the value of the mercury levels for other pressure tappings, reducing any human errors.In order to increase the accuracy of the pressure distribution over the aerofoil surface, more pressure tappings can be made on the aerofoil. These will improve the pressure coefficient graphs by allowing more points to be plotted, in turn, yielding better information for the position of the shockwave in the supercritical cases and also the critical Mach n umber for a shock to occur. References 1) http://www. southampton. ac. uk/~jps7/Aircraft%20Design%20Resources/aerodynamics/supercritical%20aerofoils. pdf 2) http://www. nasa. gov/centers/dryden/pdf/89232main_TF-2004-13-DFRC. pdf 3)

The Importance of Animals and Symbolism in Ancient...

The Ancient Egyptians are known for many of the incredible aspects of their culture and everything they have made. Some of the well known ancient Egyptian relics are the ones like the ancient pyramids, the Great Sphinx of Giza, mummies, and their many forms of art. Ancient Egyptian art, most commonly the paintings, are one of the most recognized styles of art. Not only is Egyptian art beautiful, but it carries a huge deal of value and significance with it. A great portion of the time, the art has some kind of religious meaning to it. Consequently it is very difficult to discuss the art itself without delving into the various gods and goddesses presented in it. Something that particularly struck me about Ancient Egyptian art was their†¦show more content†¦The proportion of some objects to one another is inaccurate, seeing as the Ancient Egyptians would size things based on importance. Things that were less important were illustrated as smaller, and things that were more subst antial were made bigger. The art expresses unity and repetition, because the colors are alike throughout, and the human figures are very similar to each other. The paintings are incredibly unoriginal, as they are all made to look the same. More often than not, they are seen paired with hieroglyphics. Typically, the Ancient Egyptians painted scenes of daily life, burial rituals and scenes from the afterlife, as well as scenes depicting fundamental events and often show one or more of their 114 gods and goddesses. The Ancient Egyptians used color for much more than aesthetical purposes. Not only do they employ color to enhance the artwork in appearance, but they would often use color for symbolic reasons. When looking at the artworks which used paint, such as the paintings and carvings, it is obvious that the Ancient Egyptians did not use many colors. They used about 6 colors, and the same colors were used for a range of different objects in the artworks, sometimes with minor changes. For instance, male figures in the art were depicted with darker skin than the female figures. To the Ancient Egyptians, color was a way to symbolize the importance of a figure, andShow MoreRelatedWhat is the Importance of Animals and Symbolism in Ancient Egyptian Art?2933 Words   |  12 PagesThe ancient Egyptians are known for many of the incredible aspects of their culture and everything they have produced. Some of the well known ancient Egyptian relics are the ones like the ancient pyramids, the Great Sphinx of Giza, mummies, and their many forms of art. Ancient Egyptian art is one of the most recognized styles of art. The most commonly known types of ancient Egyptian art are types like paintings, ceramics, and sculptures. Not only is Egyptian art beautiful, but it carries a huge dealRead MoreThe Ancient Egyptian Style Of Ancient Egypt1351 Words   |  6 PagesFNAR 200 Professor Heer 23 November 2015 KING NARMERS PALETTE The civilization of Ancient Egypt thrived from approximately 3100 bce until 30 bce, when the Roman Empire took control of the province. Unlike other ancient societies, however, where art would evolve and chance with new influences, the art of Ancient Egypt tends to look extremely similar for the entirety of those 300 years. 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